Habitat Loss

Habitat loss is a existent problem for temperate rocky reef species, particularly those reliant on vegetated nearshore habitats.

From: Marine Metapopulations , 2006

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

Heather Bird Jackson , Lenore Fahrig , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), 2022

Introduction

Habitat loss is occurring at an alarming charge per unit. Agriculture, the major crusade of habitat loss ( FAO, 2010; Figure 1), covers 36% of Earth's potentially suitable land (FAO, 2003). The cover type for which loss is best documented globally is forest (Balmford et al., 2002). Globe's forests underwent a internet decrease of 5.two meg hectares per year between 2000 and 2010 with the greatest losses occurring in tropical and subtropical woodlands (FAO, 2010). Although some wood loss has natural causes (e.g., burn, Harrod et al., 1999), most of the current forest loss results from human land use (FAO, 2010). The impact of forest loss on the biodiversity is even larger than expected from the raw number of hectares because forest loss is greatest in the species-rich regions of the torrid zone and subtropics (Pereira et al., 2010). Furthermore, it is in these areas that the most agricultural growth is expected in the time to come (FAO, 2003).

Figure i. An aerial photo depicting a typical agricultural area well-nigh Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (OMNR, 2010). To run across the growing demand for human food, forested land (shown in dark green) has been replaced by agronomical crops (usually corn, soy, wheat, or alfalfa in this region). Photo provided by Carleton University under licence from Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Reproduced from OMNR (2010) DRAPE: Orthoimagery (reckoner file). Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources.

Habitat loss has consequent, strong, negative effects on biodiversity. Habitat loss has negative impacts on species richness (Laurance et al., 2002), population abundance (Laurance et al., 2002), and genetic diversity (Aguilar et al., 2008). In addition, habitat loss can shorten trophic chain length; alter species interactions; and reduce successful foraging, breeding, and dispersal (reviewed in Fahrig, 2003). A combination of agriculture and hunting is the greatest perceived threat to mammal, bird, and amphibian populations (Laurance and Useche, 2009). Habitat loss is unremarkably cited as the greatest threat to wild bee populations (Brown and Paxton, 2009) and is 2nd merely to hunting as the major threat to marine fish populations (Dulvy et al., 2003).

Habitat loss affects non only biodiversity but besides impacts humans straight past decreasing production of ecosystem goods and services such as pollination (Potts et al., 2010; Ricketts et al., 2008), soil and water direction (Bruijnzeel, 2004), and carbon storage (Fargione et al., 2008). After accounting for the potential economic benefits of habitat loss (e.g., agricultural and mineral products), a conservative judge of the global net economic cost of habitat loss is Us$ 250 billion per year (Balmford et al., 2002).

Habitat fragmentation, or the breaking up of habitat into smaller pieces (Figure 2), is a 2d major effect of human land use. Its prevalence is hard to summarize because it is confounded with habitat loss and can be measured in many dissimilar means. Agreement of the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on populations has been hampered by a vague conceptualization of habitat fragmentation, just some broad generalizations can be fabricated. The strongest finding from decades of research on this topic is a consistent negative outcome of habitat loss on biodiversity, although the strength of this event depends on species traits and environmental factors.

Figure 2. Landscapes most Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, which differ in the amount and fragmentation of forested habitat. Green areas indicate forest. Other habitats (agronomics, roads, and h2o) are shaded in white. Although most habitat loss involves both reduced amount and increased fragmentation (breaking upwardly into pieces), these landscapes were selected to have independent variation in habitat amount and fragmentation: (a) high amount, low fragmentation; (b) high corporeality, high fragmentation; (c) low amount, low fragmentation; (d) low amount, loftier fragmentation. Adjusted from Ethier K and Fahrig L (2011) Positive effects of forest fragmentation, independent of forest corporeality, on bat abundance in eastern Ontario, Canada. Landscape Environmental 26: 865–876.

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Impacts of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation on Terrestrial Biodiversity

Jordan E. Rogan , Thomas E. LacherJr, in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2022

Habitat Loss

Habitat loss has significant, consistently negative effects on biodiversity. Habitat loss negatively influences biodiversity directly through its bear on on species abundance, genetic diversity, species richness, species distribution, and likewise indirectly. For example, habitat loss has been shown to subtract population growth charge per unit, which was supported by findings from Donovan and Flather (2002) who demonstrated that species with declining trends in abundance globally had a higher probability of occurring in regions with loftier levels of habitat loss than those exhibiting stable or increasing trends. Habitat loss has besides been establish to lessen the number of large, specialist species, disrupt species interactions, reduce trophic concatenation length, diminish dispersal ability and breeding success, and change predation rate, and components of animal behavior related to success rates in foraging (Fahrig, 2003).

There are additional important effects that changes in spatial configuration due to fragmentation of remaining habitat has, all the same, which human activity independently of strict habitat loss (Tscharntke et al., 2002; Fahrig, 2003).

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Biodiversity

R.Fifty.H. Dennis , in Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene, 2022

Abstract

Although habitat loss underlies the current biodiversity crunch, information technology is far from clear what is meant by habitat loss or, for that matter, habitat. Herein, a stardom is fabricated between the traditional use of the term habitat as a biotope and the functional habitat, arising from the recent resource-based habitat image. A range of terms has too been used in the literature to describe habitat loss; the relationship between them is explored. This module clarifies what is meant by habitat loss, which is shown to incorporate not only habitat reduction but also fragmentation and degradation. The significance of the resource-based habitat in countering habitat loss is discussed.

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Ecosystem Services

Julia Astegiano , ... François Massol , in Advances in Ecological Research, 2022

4.1 Harbouring Plant Species with Unlike Dispersal Power Matters for Metacommunity Persistence

Habitat loss may have more detrimental effects on plant and pollinator densities than habitat fragmentation per se, although their furnishings have rarely been separated in empirical studies (Hadley and Betts, 2022). Declines in pollinator density should trigger a negative feedback in which plants fail to produce seeds, subtract in density and become less bonny to pollinators, which in turn may subtract even more than pollinator density (Hadley and Betts, 2022; Scheper et al., 2022). However, it has been proposed that the nested construction of networks should confer high robustness to found–pollinator metacommunities to the negative furnishings of habitat loss (Fortuna and Bascompte, 2006). Moreover, other traits associated with species sensitivity to partner loss may increase or subtract the robustness of networks to species extinction (Astegiano et al., 2022; Kaiser-Bunbury et al., 2010; Tur et al., 2022; Vieira and Almeida-Neto, 2022). Our model predicts that when pollinator availability decreases metacommunities originally harbouring plants with different dispersal ability (10% of variance) may persist longer than those with plants showing similar dispersal abilities. With 30% of habitat loss and the extinction rate of pollinators being high (i.eastward. more than 75% of their colonization charge per unit), metacommunities originally showing variation in dispersal ability among plants tended to support higher establish and pollinator richness. With sixty% of habitat loss, although variation in establish dispersal ability did non prevent pollinator collapse, it allowed the persistence of some plant species, while the lack of variation in dispersal amid plants likely led to full metacommunity plummet. Variation in dispersal power amongst plants may increase metacommunity persistence past maintaining the fraction of fragments colonized by some found species higher than the fraction in which these species went extinct. Instead, when dispersal rates are like among all found species and the occupancy of pollinators pass up, even when specialist plants may produce seeds past having high democratic self-pollination rates metacommunities may lose species or completely collapse because found colonization power may be highly limited past seed production. Thus, as showed for other interspecific interactions (Calcagno et al., 2022; Mouquet et al., 2022), we found that the effects of the dispersal of individuals amid communities can essentially modify predictions on the effects of habitat loss on constitute–pollinator persistence, even those predictions obtained from models explicitly considering the structure of interaction networks (Fortuna and Bascompte, 2006).

Marked decreases in pollinator diversity have been empirically observed merely with high levels of habitat loss (Ekroos et al., 2010; Winfree et al., 2009). Our model predicts that with xxx% of habitat loss and when pollinators are going extinct from a fraction of fragments barely smaller than that of colonized fragments, full pollinator collapse will exist prevalent even in metacommunities in which most plant species (food resources) persist. This effect implies that, although food resource may barely exist macerated by habitat loss (lxx% of natural habitat remaining), consummate pollinator plummet might still occur with time. Our model assumes that all pollinators had the same extinction charge per unit, i.e., are negatively and equally affected by other factors decreasing pollinator occupancy besides food resource. Therefore, the collapse of pollinators with 30% of habitat loss may reflect situations in which pollinator variety strongly decreases across dissimilar functional groups due to factors associated with increasing habitat loss different from the decrease in food sources. For instance, habitat loss may human activity synergistically with other drivers such equally agricultural intensification or pathogen spread, negatively affecting pollinator diversity (González-Varo et al., 2022; Potts et al., 2010). Agricultural intensification may imply increases of pesticides inputs, while the spread of pathogens may occur from managed to wild pollinators, both processes direct affecting the fitness of pollinators and leading to pollinator declines (González-Varo et al., 2022). With 60% of habitat loss, pollinators are predicted to persist only when all animal-pollinated found species persist, thus the articulation negative effects of decreases in food resource density and of the increasing isolation of natural habitats may result in the complete collapse of pollinators. Previous theoretical studies have as well predicted the existence of a critical threshold for plant–pollinator metacommunity persistence at sixty% of habitat loss (Fortuna et al., 2022; Keitt, 2009). Later loftier natural habitat destruction, the negative effects of sure landscape configurations (due east.g. several small fragments) and the synergistic furnishings between habitat loss and other drivers of pollinator pass up should become more evident (Hadley and Betts, 2022; González-Varo et al., 2022). However, how surrounding fields with temporally available pollen- or nectar-rewarded crops may alter the predictions of our model under high agricultural intensification, e.one thousand., past temporally increasing pollinator occupancy (Scheper et al., 2022) remains to be tested (but run into Keitt, 2009).

Although our model predicts that full metacommunities may persist with lx% of habitat loss (with low plant and pollinator extinction rates), species may co-occur and interact in a very small fraction of the landscape. This is because, in our model, it was assumed that if interaction partners persist in the mural, the interaction does occur with certainty. Recent empirical studies have showed that in fragmented landscapes, interactions can exist lost before species have disappeared (Aizen et al., 2022; Sabatino et al., 2010). Interaction loss may be associated with higher specificity between partners and lower interaction frequency (Aizen et al., 2022). Thus, our model may overestimate metacommunity persistence with high habitat loss. Moreover, our model may underestimate the being of an "extinction debt" (Tilman et al., 1994) if many species are almost at the threshold capacity of the landscape that ensures meta-population persistence (Hanski and Ovaskainen, 2000).

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Endangered Mammals

Peter Zahler , Tatjana Rosen , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (2d Edition), 2022

Habitat Loss, Degradation, and Encroachment

Habitat loss and fragmentation is the single greatest threat to biodiversity worldwide, and this certainly holds true for mammals today. Conversion of habitats by humans into other land uses tin can fragment and separate mammal populations and increment the likelihood of local population extinctions and eventual species extinction. Rapid deforestation of tropical areas is a growing threat to a number of mammalian species, including many big, broad-ranging, or specialist species of primates, cats, and forest ungulates, too as numerous pocket-size species with restricted ranges such as rodents, insectivores, and marsupials. Most of these species cannot adapt to a highly fragmented or altered mural, and the few that exercise arrange may come into conflict with humans past feeding on crops or livestock.

The case of the behemothic panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) shows some of the complexities related to fragmentation and habitat loss. Pandas feed primarily on bamboo that may alive for decades just and then tends to bloom, seed, and die en masse within certain areas. When this happens pandas must switch to other bamboo species, oft having to move to new locations to find these alternative nutrient sources. According to studies post-obit the latest major bamboo die-off in the early 1980s, pandas were still able to survive past finding patches that had not flowered, moving to new locations or switching to other less-favored species of bamboo. The increase in homo population within the panda's range in China has now limited most populations of pandas to very small islands of habitat. Widely separated and very small-scale populations of pandas may not be feasible over the long term, even without the problems faced from the fluctuations in their food source.

Because mammals are often relatively poor dispersers, the creation of corridors linking habitats has been suggested equally a manner to assist some species, especially large or wide-ranging (including nomadic or migratory) ones. But for many mammals the necessary size and construction of corridors is unknown, and few direction plans have notwithstanding to put this idea into practice.

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Extinction, Causes of

Richard B. Primack , Rachel A. Morrison , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (2nd Edition), 2022

Habitat Loss

Habitat loss is the master threat to the majority of vertebrate species currently facing extinction, a generalization that is sure to be truthful for threatened invertebrates, plants, and fungi too. In many countries of the earth, particularly on islands and in locations where human population density is high, most of the original habitat has been destroyed. Agronomics, commercial development, h2o projects, livestock grazing, pollution, infrastructure and roads, logging, and outdoor recreation threaten habitats of endangered species. More than fifty% of the habitat has been destroyed in 49 of 61 Old Globe tropical countries. In tropical Asia, 65% of the master wood habitat has been lost, with particularly high rates of devastation reported for Bangladesh (96%), Sri Lanka (86%), Bharat (78%), and Vietnam (76%). Similarly, sub-Saharan Africa has lost about 65% of its forests, with losses most severe in Gambia (89%), Republic of ghana (82%), and Rwanda (80%). Two biologically rich nations, Zimbabwe and the Autonomous Commonwealth of Congo (formerly Zaire), are relatively better off with about half of their forests remaining, although it is as well soon to say how the contempo civil war in the latter state has harmed its wildlife population. In the Mediterranean region which has been densely populated for thousands of years, only x% of the original forest remains. Present rates of deforestation vary considerably among countries, with especially high almanac rates of 1.5–2% for tropical countries such as Vietnam, Côte d'lvoire, Mexico, Paraguay, and Republic of costa rica.

For many important species, the majority of habitat in their original range have been destroyed, and a very little of their remaining habitat is protected. For certain Asian primates, such every bit the Javan gibbon, more than 95% of the original habitat has been destroyed. The orangutan, a corking ape that lives in Sumatra and Kalimantan, has lost 63% of its habitat and is protected in only 2% of its range. Such habitat losses inevitably lead to extinctions.

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Wood Canopies, Establish Diversity

Nalini Chiliad. Nadkarni , ... Jurgen Nieder , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, 2001

Vii.A. General Considerations

Habitat loss and climatic change are growing threats to plant communities. Arboreal plants provide many opportunities and challenges for biologists from many disciplines, and because there plants have no admission or sporadic access to terrestrial soil, they make excellent experimental subjects to written report physiology and stress. Canopy plants warrant attention for the roles they play in forest dynamics, which touch on biodiversity, productivity, and nutrient cycling. A listing of research questions was created for vascular epiphytes ( Table Half-dozen); these questions can also be related to the study of other types of canopy plants.

Table VI. Research Questions and Opportunities for Awning Plants a

Subject Obvious Questions remaining
1. Fidelity to canopy versus other substrates Occurrence on trees ranges from accidental to obligate. What factors differentiate canopy from terrestrial substrates for the obligate epiphyte? How has specialization for arboreal life compromised capacity to survive on the ground?
2. Requirements for specific types of arboreal substrates Specific epiphytes typically colonize only subsets of the many types of substrates present in occupied tree crowns. What plant characteristics decide microsite requirements for twig, bark, humus, emmet-nest garden, etc., epiphytes?
3. Plant adjustments to the often transitory and relatively unpredictable supplies of moisture in forest canopies Broadly occurring accommodations to drought (e.g., CAM, xeromorphy) are especially well adult amidst the epiphytes. What is the nature of the moisture supply in wood canopies and how are mechanisms such as photosynthetic pathways, osmotic remainder, and stomatal behavior fine-tuned to reduce adventure and maximize effective use of available moisture?
4. Plant adjustments to the absence of mineral soil A variety of organic substrates, including the products of mutualistic biota, serve in lieu of globe soil every bit sources of nutritive ions. How is impounded litter candy for phytotelm epiphytes? How substantially do ant mutualists contribute to the nutrient budgets of associated epiphytes? How are the more than oligotrophic epiphytes (eastward.thou., atmospheric bromeliads) equipped to scavenge scarce ions and utilise them economically?
five. Impacts of arboreal ants Some epiphytes crave ants for dispersal and to provide rooting media. How much arboreal flora beyond the obvious ant-nest garden and myrmecotrophic species are dependent on ants for dispersal, substrates, and defense?
6. Epiphytic vegetation as a resource for awning fauna Much arboreal fauna, specially invertebrates, use epiphytes equally resources. What is the total extent of this dependence and what are the broader consequences of these dependencies for the forest community?
7. Epiphyte involvements in nutrient cycles Nutritional piracy exists. Epiphyte biomass sometimes contains much of the nutrient capital present in a forest ecosystem. To what degree and under what conditions does the presence of an epiphyte load have an impact on the nutritional status of a phorophyte?
viii. Impacts on customs productivity and patterns of resources employ Resources present in epiphyte biomass (e.thousand., N and P) at to the lowest degree sometimes yield photosynthetic returns at dissimilar rates than those of supporting soil-rooted vegetation. How does the presence of substantial epiphyte biomass affect amass woods productivity and aid make up one's mind overall resource-apply efficiency?
9. Conservation Because many epiphytes occupy narrow ranges (especially orchids), ofttimes in regions of rapid evolution, endangered condition is correspondingly common. What conservation strategies are likely to preserve the greatest diverseness of epiphytes?
10. Indicators of habitat quality and global change Some epiphytes possess characteristics that impart extraordinary utility as air quality monitors. How can epiphytic vegetation be more finer used to monitor changing weather in the troposphere?
11. Succession Presumed serai stages identified. Do species displace i another on bawl? If so, by what mechanisms?
12. Community organisation Species often co-occur in predictable assemblages, but oft distribution and spacing amid individuals are random. Are the factors responsible for the distributions and combinations of species on bark primarily density dependent or density independent?
a
Modified from Benzing (1990).

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Endangered Mammals

Peter Zahler , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, 2001

Three.B. Habitat Loss, Degradation, and Encroachment

Habitat loss and fragmentation is the single greatest threat to biodiversity worldwide, and this certainly holds true for mammals today. Conversion of habitats by humans into other land uses can fragment and separate mammal populations and increase the likelihood of local population extinctions and eventual species extinction. Rapid deforestation of tropical areas is a growing threat to a number of mammalian species, including many large, wide-ranging, or specialist species of primates, cats, and woods ungulates, as well as numerous small-scale species with restricted ranges such as rodents, insectivores, and marsupials. Most of these species cannot adapt to a highly fragmented or altered landscape, and the few that do accommodate oft come into disharmonize with humans by feeding on crops or livestock.

The case of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) shows some of the complexities related to fragmentation and habitat loss. Pandas feed primarily on bamboo that may live for decades just then tends to blossom, seed, and dice en masse within certain areas. When this happens pandas must switch to other bamboo species, ofttimes having to move to new locations to detect these alternative food sources. The increase in human population within the panda's range in Prc has limited most populations of pandas to very small islands of habitat. A recent seeding and die-off of three species of bamboo resulted in the starvation of over 10% of the globe'due south remaining wild panda population. Widely separated and very pocket-sized populations of pandas may not be feasible over the long term, even without the problems faced from the fluctuations in their food source.

Because mammals are often relatively poor dispersers, the creation of corridors linking habitats has been suggested every bit a way to aid some species, peculiarly large or wide-ranging (including nomadic or migratory) ones. Only for many mammals the necessary size and structure of corridors is unknown, and few management plans have all the same to put this thought into practice.

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The Imperiled Giant Armadillo: Ecology and Conservation

Arnaud L.J. Desbiez , Nina Attias , in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2022

Habitat loss

Habitat loss is i the biggest threats to giant armadillo persistence. In fact, their classification on the IUCN Red Listing is inferred based on the loss of habitat the species is experiencing throughout its range. Estimates for population declines based on habitat are of at least xxx% in the past 21  years. Deforestation also often provides more admission to hunters.

The extent of occurrence of giant armadillo distribution can provide an erroneous impression of the species conservation status, as the species has gone locally extinct in many areas within its distribution (east.thousand., in virtually Atlantic Wood remnants). Recently, fragments of the Cerrado and the Atlantic Forest in 344 watersheds of Mato Grosso do Sul state (259,641   km2; Brazil) were explored and surveyed for evidence of giant armadillos. They confirmed the presence of the species in 164 watersheds, and its absenteeism in 180 of them. They used these presence points to model the electric current potential distribution of the species using Maxent. Only 25% of the evaluated region was predicted to exist suitable for giant armadillos. This highlights the incongruence between the polygons commonly used to portray the species distribution and the suitable surface area for the species. Furthermore, ane of the most of import explanatory variables for the species distribution was country cover and behemothic armadillo's presence probability was highest in wood formations. Nevertheless, only 0.15% of the areas suitable to giant armadillos in the region are strictly protected. In improver, over 25% of the suitable forest and savanna areas in the region have been lost in the last 33   years (1985–2018). This results in a astringent fragmentation of the suitable areas left for the giant armadillos, with most suitable habitat patches (forest and savanna) surrounded by an agricultural matrix. Only four suitable patches larger than 100   km2 remain in the region and are very distant from each other. In that location are only 69 patches larger than ≥   25   kmii, which is the average area required for a single behemothic armadillo. Therefore, giant armadillos are probable to demand to occupy several fragments to meet their resource requirements in this highly fragmented landscape. This means high exposure to the other threats listed below. In addition, this could also mean that the giant armadillo individuals recorded in this fragmented landscape could be part of failing or functionally extinct populations. This situation highlights the threat of habitat loss to behemothic armadillos not but in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, but throughout its distribution.

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Chaco Eagle Ecology and Conservation

José Hernán Sarasola , ... Beatriz Martínez-Miranzo , in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2022

Habitat loss

Habitat loss has large, consistently negative effects on biodiversity, and is ane of the major forces driving the decline of species. South America is one of the regions with the greatest biodiversity on the planet but too one of the most afflicted by habitat loss to the point that 2 of the largest forested biomes in that region, the Amazonian forest and the Chaco, show the highest afforestment rates in the earth.

Chaco Eagle seems to exist sensitive to such wide-calibration and drastic habitat transformations. In central-eastern Argentina, for example, the destruction and fragmentation of native forests in club to transform them into croplands has led to a regression of about 38% of the ecotone betwixt the Chaco and Espinal biomes. Fandiño and Pautasso (2013) compared the celebrated vs. current area of occupancy and estimated that their distribution declined 36% from 76,328   km2 historically to 48,940   km2. Changes in the distribution of Chaco Eagles coincided with the area that was transformed. Like ongoing processes of big-scale habitat transformation, mainly driven by the advances of agricultural frontier at the expense of forested and natural grasslands, also occur in other areas, but the effects on Chaco Eagle have not been assessed withal.

In Argentina, current records of Chaco Eagles are concentrated in the Dry and Humid Chaco biome and in the s and north fractions of the Espinal biome likewise as in the ecotones between them, while reports of the species in Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay are mostly anecdotal. Furthermore, Chaco Eagle records are lacking in many areas of its historical distribution. Therefore, habitat transformations combined with high direct mortality may issue in a process of local species extinctions with low recolonization probabilities such every bit that reported for Uruguay where the species is extirpated in spite of existence observed in southern Brazil and eastern Argentina.

Accidental wildfires are important natural disturbances affecting the structure and operation of semiarid forests. For the Espinal biome in key Argentina, for example, an estimated 600,000   ha are burned every year. Although these environments have evolved with fire every bit a natural and integral component that shapes forests, human activities such as livestock grazing accept led to changes in fire regimes over the last 100–200   years. As a result, the frequency and extension of fires in these habitats have increased, leading to devastating effects on woods'south vegetal construction and composition, but also biodiversity as a whole. Besides changes to habitat structure, wildfires too burned Chaco Eagle nests either during the incubation or the chick rearing periods, negatively affecting the productivity.

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